Dopamine and Extreme Sports Expounded
Abstract
This paper reflects on research regarding dopamine and its impact on novelty, thrills, and anticipation. Clinical studies are examined looking at the correlation between thrills, novelty and dopamine and its impact on unhealthy impulse related stimuli. It is proposed that pre-planned healthy thrills and novelty, such as extreme sports, could give a dopamine release that feels rewarding as an alternative to maladaptive impulse seeking behaviors.
Dopamine
In 1957, a London researcher named Kathleen Montagu discovered the neurotransmitter dopamine (Lieberman & Long, 2019). Dopamine, an excitatory neurotransmitter, helps the body produce norepinephrine or noradrenaline. Located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which houses cognition, motivation, and intense emotional responses regarding love, this pleasure molecule drives the reward system (Johns, 2014). The VTA, a natural reward circuit, unconsciously releases dopamine during sensory stimulation and impulsivity. In today’s fast-paced world, many seek cheap dopamine through quick, easy-to-access rewards such as social media or instant gratification activities. Dopamine is released in the VTA, and dopamine receptors receive the dopamine. For the purpose of this paper, we will refer to dopamine as a system. Further research is needed to address the entire system, including the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine and dopamine receptors.
A naturally occurring reward system is key to functioning as a human. Remembering stimuli, as in the case of finding food, aids in survival. Low dopamine levels can produce maladaptive behaviors of this reward system, in an attempt to activate the release of dopamine. A maladaptive dopamine system can have pathological indications such as addictions (Barch et al., 2014).
Maladaptive Impulse Seeking Behaviors
Thrilling activities activate neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the reward system, which work together to produce a reward. This is a part of the dopaminergic system (Blum, 2014). When dopamine motivates the body to find food and shelter, the thrill is in seeking food and a warm place to sleep. The reward is fuel, warmth, and life. This adaptive positive response of the reward system is necessary for survival. However, when this system is hijacked, it can lead to maladaptive behavior, where individuals seek thrills through unhealthy or harmful activities that bypass natural survival instincts.
If the dopamine reward system becomes maladaptive, it can contribute to acting on maladaptive impulsive related stimuli, such as in addictions (Barch et al., 2014). Maladaptive impulsive related behavior, for the purpose of this research, refers to addictive behaviors such as but not limited to, substance abuse, gambling, illicit sex, and shoplifting. In different studies cocaine abusers (Sher et al., 2000), and methamphetamine abusers (Greken et al., 2006) reported high impulsivity. Moreno et al. (2021) shows low dopamine levels have been associated with impulsive choices and can be a contributing factor in substance abuse (Weber et al., 2021). Therefore, it may be concluded, low dopamine levels increase a desire for stimuli that releases dopamine. Sensation seeking stimuli and risk or thrills, may be needed, in order to activate enough dopamine to feel rewarded.
The Reward Cycle
In a study of monkeys and the reward cycle, a monkey pressed a lever ten times and received one raisin, producing ten units of dopamine. Then the monkey pressed the lever ten times and received two raisins, resulting in twenty units of dopamine being released. This illustrates the effort driven reward cycle, where increased effort leads to a greater sense of reward. Next, the monkey received just two raisins, and the dopamine level returned to ten units. If the monkey only received one raisin, dopamine levels declined. The first time we receive something is always the best and could be why there is never quite enough of something (Tobler et al., 2005). This could explain why in addictions and in thrill-seeking, there is a need for “more reward” to feel rewarded.
Wolfram Schultz of Cambridge University trained monkeys to expect two or twenty units of a reward. If the monkeys received one or four units of reward and it was unexpected, there was a release of dopamine. When the reward changed from four or forty, the same release of dopamine occurred. The surprise and anticipation were driving the release. He concluded there is a steady release of dopamine, however if the reward is more than expected or arrives sooner than expected, there is a larger dopamine release. This leads us to believe novelty and anticipation of a reward are as important as the actual reward (Sapolsky, 2018).
Anticipation of Reward
“A possibility” can activate the dopaminergic system. Humans get a dopamine dump from the anticipation of a surprise on a birthday, a lover’s letter, meeting an old friend, or a familiar route to a dealer’s house. This dopamine anticipation of reward plays a key role in fueling the excitement. Surprise can also fuel dopamine, such as leaving work early or finding a hundred-dollar bill. This is called the happy error and refers to the excitement of the unexpected (Lieberman & Long, 2019).
This is especially accurate in drug addicts, where findings show the greater level of dopamine in the reward pathway, produced by cocaine, the greater the high. As dopamine dropped off, the high faded. Researchers concluded in various studies, that it is not likely that cocaine produced dopamine, but the anticipation of the cocaine (Spronk et al., 2016).
In a study with mice, Webber et al. (2010) discovered dopamine is stimulated in anticipation of a reward. Dopamine increased when rats were shown an unconditioned stimulus and also when the stimulus was associated with the reward. The anticipation of a reward from impulsive related stimuli, such as drugs, illicit sexual encounters or money can start the dopamine cycle as the planning of the reward begins. This could explain why the planning, to meet a lover in an affair, or a familiar route to the drug dealers’ home, can be as thrilling as the actual encounter.
One possible explanation of this system is explored in a study by Weber et al (2020) which measured the anticipation of an award using an fMRI. The conclusion was that the subcortical limbic structure is active in even the anticipation of an award. This anticipation also activates prefrontal brain regions, which involves the NAcc, thalamus, striatum, prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex (Weber et al., 2020). Burgdorf et al. (2001) also showed this as well in a study on rats. Anticipation of the risk for the sake of experiencing the sensations, could start the dopamine release (Schneider, 2021). This is the same system that activates when seeking or planning illicit activity.
Novelty and Sensation Seeking
Those with a reward deficiency may not be able to feel pleasure unless their dopamine receptors are stimulated with large amounts of dopamine (Sherman, 2021). Zuckerman (1994) suggests that high sensation-seeking behavior may be linked to low levels of dopamine. Individuals displaying sensation seeking behavior often seek out intense, novel experiences to trigger a dopamine response. Sensation-seeking in some sports can be characterized as novel. Novelty seeking is connected to dopamine (Cloninger, 1994).
Novelty seeking is related to thrill seeking behavior, impulsivity, variety, and creativity. Zuckerman's theory (1994 ) describes novelty as “seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experience” ( Zuckerman, 1994, p. 27). Zuckerman (1994) shows risk is a necessary proponent of an activity for sensations to occur. He believed risk was not the main goal that clients were going for, but the novel intense experience.
An alternative to Maladaptive Sensation Seeking
Berse et al. (2015) showed physical exercise can improve the dopamine system in an unselected sample of adolescents. Intense physical exercise improved the dopamine system by a large margin. Berse et al. (2015) discovered even intense exercise lasting only 10–14 minutes improved dopamine output. If just exercise can induce this system, what about thrilling sports? Could they elicit that same anticipation and dopamine release through novel activities? For individuals struggling with maladaptive perfectionism, where the drive for perfection often leads to unhealthy behaviors, thrilling sports might offer a healthier alternative. Could it be a replacement for the unhealthy rewards that are being sought through maladaptive activities?
Novel events in extremes sports, may be an attempt for participants to receive a dopamine response. Weis (1987) showed novel experience are produced in part by activating the dopamine system. Extreme sports could fulfill the desire for sensation seeking, and in most extreme sports, risk is minimized with much preparation. This planned risk may begin the dopamine release as the anticipation of the sport is planned. This could be an alternative to seeking maladaptive stimuli and the dopamine release that comes when planning illicit activities.
The window of thrills
Humans have a distinct window that brings them personal thrills and rewards. This varies greatly among people from being thrilled at a watching symphony, to riding a roller coaster. For some, conflict takes brings them up to the edge of their comfort zone and others it is a physical fight (Sherman, 2021).
For a portion of the population, it takes an extreme risk or novel event to receive a thrill. Impulse related activities such as substance abuse or gambling help some individuals reach their thrill level. Life may be flat for some and needed are activities that stimulate them. Impulsivity can give some that thrill as they seek novelty.
High Risk Sports
Zuckerman’s subset, the Sensation Seeking Scale's Thrill and Adventure Seeking subscale, showed positivity when engaging in outdoor activities that involve high risk, such as skydiving or rock climbing (Prochniak, 2014). Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale is divided into four parts: thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility (Zuckerman 1994). Brevik (1996) showed sensation and risk taking in sport is the seeking of intense sensation.
Zuckerman (1994) found that to receive that thrill, there is a risk that is taken. For some with lower dopamine this may be a big risk, where for some it is a small risk. Boga (1988) interviewed high risk athletes and found fear was an acceptable feeling for these athletes.
Adventure Racing
Schneider (2007) interviewed extreme adventure racers, regarding risk and reward. An expedition adventure racer participates in races that are up to nine days long with a running clock. The activities participated in can be mountain biking, mountaineering, white water rafting, rock climbing and more. Teams of four must navigate a course of 300-500 miles with no support. Adventure racing has extreme risk from the sports involved, to exposure on the mountain. Schneider (2007) showed interviewees experience risk in the sport, however the set up and anticipation of minimizing that risk was also exciting.
The actual doing of the sport is not the only rewarding part. The planning is as well. Planning to jump out of an airplane, BASE jump, mountaineering, or for an expedition adventure race can also stimulate the dopamine system.
Extreme Sports
Extreme sports can include high speed, height, perceived or real danger, physical exertion, and stunts that have an increased risk (Caine, 2012). Sports such as these are often very challenging geographically, environmentally, and there are few resources and often participants must be self-reliant.
Examples of a few extreme sports are mountain biking, hang-gliding or paragliding, adventure racing, free diving, kite surfing, white water rafting, BASE jumping, skydiving, mountaineering, and helicopter skiing. A study of Chinese extreme sports participants included four mountain climbers, five rock climbers, two ice climbers, two downhill mountain biking, and paraglider. Four were female and ten were male, aged between 10 and 43 years. Each had something called the “vertigo factor” which indicates one is participating for the danger, risk thrill and being on the cusp of danger (Zhou et al., 2020).
Support for Extreme Sports
This author proposes sports could be an alternative for those who demonstrate impulsivity, thrill-seeking, and have a propensity for risk. Exploring extreme sports for kids with experts, where the risk is minimized, could illicit a dopamine response as opposed to that of risky behavior. The thrill factor would be different for each person, but knowing this could be a possible outlet for thrills, could help one steer away from the thrill-seeking of illicit behaviors.
The public may view extreme sports as equally dangerous as impulse-related stimuli. In reality, much planning goes into participating in indoor extreme sports or outdoor activities safely. For example, extreme sports parks offer structured environments where participants can experience the excitement while reducing risks. Zhou et al. (2020) showed climbers do not actually want to risk their lives. They are doing everything possible to minimize injury and risk. Supporting this activity therapeutically may increase dopamine through a planned thrill-seeking activity. It could possibly decrease the desire for maladaptive behaviors such as substance abuse or gambling.
A theory is proposed that extreme sports would illicit a dopamine release, fulfilling the need for sensation and thrill-seeking, as opposed to maladaptive impulse-related behavior. If one could find a thrill-seeking extreme sport, perhaps in an extreme sports park, a sport that excites them greatly when thinking about participating, the adventure could be planned. The planning of the adventure, as well as the goal of minimizing the risk, would also be releasing dopamine as the reward was anticipated. Finally, the participation in the adventure (the reward) would stimulate a satisfying dopamine release. Further research is needed to measure this replacement activity, and this opens up exciting opportunities for alternative thrilling, and rewarding, dopamine-producing behaviors.
Conclusion
This paper sought to look at the possibility of an alternative for those who are sensation-seeking and finding that through illicit activities. This alternative activity could be the thrill and risk of indoor extreme sports or other extreme sports. It is proposed that this may be a replacement activity that stimulates dopamine, and therefore, one would not need to participate in illicit behaviors for this dopamine release. Further studies would need to be done to validate this proposal.
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